X-ray crystallography

In X-ray crystallography we go from a crystallized macromolecule to a diffraction pattern to an electron density map, from which a model of the protein crystallized can be assembled. Exposing a crystal to X-rays results in a diffraction pattern with discrete spots due to the periodic nature of the crystal.  Each spots represents an X-ray wave hitting the detector, which carries with it structural information of the protein crystallized. The intensity of the spot is proportional to the amplitude of the wave, and the phase can be determined through various techniques.

Cryo-Electron Microscopy

Small-angle X-ray scattering

Isothermal titration calorimetry

Mass spectrometry